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| Seonjuk Bridge (right) and its smaller replacement bridge (left) can be seen in the center of the image. In the background is Pyochung where two stone steles are kept commemorating the assassination ― one erected by King Yeongjo in 1740 and the other by King Gojong in 1872. Robert Neff Collection |
By Robert Neff
John Baptiste Bernadou, a 24-year-old ensign in the United States Navy and temporarily assigned to the legation in Seoul, visited Gaeseong for a very short time in early July 1884 while on his way to Pyongyang. Bernadou's descriptions of Gaeseong are anemic ― especially in regard to the ruins of the city.
According to Bernadou:
"The ruins of the former palace are still be seen; they are to the northward of the city, at the foot of a range of granite hills like those at [Seoul]. The foundations along remain. Circular grooves, cut in certain stones such as are now made, would seem to show that the structures were of wood like those of the present day. A few walls and wide flights of ruined steps remain; the base of a small pavilion, a pile or rectangular blocks of stone, is the only structure standing."
It appears Bernadou was referring to Manwoldae Palace (Palace of the Full Moon). Construction was started in 919 and completed in 1029. The palace was no stranger to fire and was frequently damaged ― the final time in 1362.
It is a shame Bernadou did not make the effort to describe some of the other sites he encountered.
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| Sungyangseowon in the first part of the 20th century Robert Neff Collection |
Not far from the city, he likely crossed a small stream by means of a double bridge ― two bridges side-by-side. The newer bridge was used by travelers to cross the stream while the ancient stone bridge enclosed by a stone fence, known as Seonjuk Bridge, was honored by the residents of Gaeseong. It is probably safe to assume he knew nothing about the alleged dark role Seonjuk Bridge played in the establishment of the Joseon Kingdom.
Legend claims that on April 26, 1392 (solar calendar), 54-year-old Jeong Mong-ju, a very influential official of the Goryeo court, was riding home after a banquet at General Yi Seong-gye's house. His attendance at the banquet spelled his doom. It was no secret that Jeong was opposed to Yi Seong-gye and his reforms and would oppose him in any way that he could.
When Yi's fifth son, Yi Bang-won, noticed Jeong at the banquet, the two dueled one another with words ― they used poetry. Yi Bang-won subtly encouraged Jeong to sway from his support to the king and Jeong refused with verse. Here is the verse translated into English in the early 20th century:
"Though I die, and die a hundred times, and die again. And all my bones turn whitened clay,
With soul and spirit gone I know not where.
This heart of loyalty to my lord the King shall never change, no never, never, never."
Furious with Jeong's refusal, Yi Bang-won resorted to a Machiavellian course of action ― assassination ― to help place his father on the path to the throne.
He ordered Jo Yeong-ju and three or four other men to confront Jeong at Seonjuk (then known as Seonji) Bridge and kill him. Depending on the source, Jo was hiding beneath the bridge with a large iron mace, other sources claim that he and the other assassins were near the bridge and knocked Jeong from his horse and then pursued him as the dazed man fled. Jo dealt the fatal blow with his iron mace. Others, like Homer Hulbert, claimed Jeong was attacked on the bridge and stoned to death.
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| King Gongmin's tomb in Gaeseong in the early 20th century Robert Neff Collection |
As Jeong died, his blood seeped into the stone and became a permanent feature ― never to be erased. The red stains in the stone were especially visible when it rained. Apparently in the 1920s, many Westerners referred to this bridge as the "Bloody Bridge." There was another supernatural twist which resulted in the bridge's original name, Seonji, being changed to Seonjuk. As one missionary recalled, according to legend, after Jeong's death "a bamboo tree grew up miraculously from the bridge as heaven's testimony to the superior character of the man who died there." It was for this reason the bridge's name was changed to Seonjuk ― "Honest Bamboo Bridge."
The assassination of Jeong at Seonjuk Bridge is a popular historical theme but there are some who question not only the assassination's location, but also the validity of the assassination ― suggesting, perhaps, that Jeong was executed.
Jeong's home was located not far from Seonjuk Bridge and was later converted into Sunyangseowon ― a Confucian academy. It may not have attracted Bernadou's attention but it later became a popular site for tourists. A missionary, who visited the site in 1923, wrote:
"The present building erected 1573 stands among the eternal rocks unchanged and unchangeable like the memory of the man himself. His picture was shown [to] us, his staff, and his tablet, as well as the hall where his grateful disciples meet once a month to write verses and remember his exalted name."
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| A postcard from the mid-20th century of Seonjuk Bridge Robert Neff Collection |
Although he doesn't clearly state in his correspondences or articles that he visited any of the tombs in the Gaeseong area, we can surmise by his notes that he did. There were at least 53 royal or aristocratic tombs around the city and I can imagine the twin tombs of King Gongmin and his queen caught his attention.
In an article published in 2005 in vol. 80 of Transactions, the journal of Royal Asiatic Society Korea, Elisabeth Chabanol wrote:
"King [Gongmin], who reigned from 1351 to 1374 was the last significant monarch of the dynasty. He tried to restore the authority of the royal house following a century of Mongol interference in the government. The construction of his tomb, the most impressive of all the [Goryeo] period royal tombs, was undoubtedly part of his strategy to revive the monarchy, and should be considered as the symbol of his power. Following the death of his wife, Princess Noguk, in 1365, he built a tomb for her on a site that been meticulously chosen."
Chabanol went on to say that several years before Gongmin's own death he had his tomb built next to the queen's ― making this the only twin royal tomb from the Goryeo period as the queen was generally buried in the king's tomb.
I don't think Bernadou ― even though he had expressed an interest in digging up a skeleton ― was bold enough to try and plunder a royal tomb, but he does seem to have engaged in a little treasure hunting amongst the dead. In a letter to the Smithsonian he wrote that "old pottery, though rare and commanding high prices, is obtainable." How was it obtainable?
Describing a cup and cup-stand he presented to the Smithsonian, he wrote: "Found in a tomb near Song-do [Gaeseong], the old capital of Korea. Koreans say that from the shape and design, such pieces cannot be less than six hundred years old….During the long period of burial the glaze has been completely destroyed. Shape is that of a lotus flower indicating a Buddhist origin."
He only collected a few examples of pottery from the area ― I am assuming that he was rushed for time and maybe a little concerned about the matter of transporting it to his next stop ― Pyongyang.
Robert Neff has authored and co-authored several books, including Letters from Joseon, Korea Through Western Eyes and Brief Encounters.
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