Buddhism played a key role in Korea

By Kyung Moon Hwang

To commemorate Buddha's Birthday, we should reflect on the historical impact of Buddhism, which perhaps is the cultural form most closely associated with Korea as a distinct civilization.

Just as European countries can be viewed as products of the "Judeo-Christian" tradition, East Asia can be seen as "Buddhist-Confucian." It has been said that, regardless of their formal religious identities, all Koreans (and perhaps all East Asians) are, at heart, Confucians. But it would be more accurate to state that all Koreans, whether they acknowledge this or not, are Buddhists.

The ties between Buddhism and Korea run so deep that Buddhism even preceded the formation of "Korea" on the peninsula and helped shape Korea into its early forms. Traditionally Buddhism has been traced back to the 4th century, when it was introduced from China, and thereafter it played an indispensable role in the political and cultural formation of the Three Kingdoms.

The close relationship between institutionalized religion and statecraft, which would characterize Korean historical development for more than 1,500 years, began in this ancient era, as Buddhist clerics helped advise and provide legitimacy to political leaders.

As a religious entity as well, early Buddhism established abiding patterns in Korean civilization. The first of these was ecumenism, or the harmonization of religious diversity. Instead of excluding or repressing the indigenous folk religions on the peninsula, Buddhist leaders absorbed and even celebrated them.

This approach, as part of its core teachings of finding spiritual relief from suffering, resulted in a stronger and more durable connection to the populace and established a general principle of inclusivity up to the modern era.

Embracing native religions in the early years also established Buddhism's close connection to Korea's environment and geography, as temples were erected in the mountains as a reflection of the shamanistic worship of natural spirits and deities.

The primacy of the terrain in Korean identity was further developed by Buddhist clerics who adapted the ideas of geomancy to conceive of the peninsula as a living form fed and shaped by its mountains.

Such an impact in the nation's cultural history also came in art and technology. At its peak during the Goryeo Kingdom, Buddhism inspired and promoted some of the greatest achievements in Korean art and architecture. But perhaps most impressive was the Buddhist clergy's extraordinary advances in printing technology.

Today some of the oldest examples of woodblock printing in the world date to the Silla Kingdom, with the high point reached in the mammoth project, accomplished twice no less, of printing the entire Buddhist canon, or Tripitika, during the Goryeo era. When the first set was destroyed by Mongol invaders, a second set was carved into 80,000 wooden printing blocks, which remain in the Haeinsa Temple today.

Not surprisingly, Buddhism was also responsible for what is often deemed Koreans' most impressive technological invention, movable metal type printing, which took place two centuries before Johannes Gutenberg's machine in the 15th century. And not surprisingly, the oldest extant book in the world printed with movable metal type is a Korean Buddhist work, recently repatriated to South Korea after more than a century of being held in France.

This brings us to another historical theme in which Buddhism played a key role in Korea, perseverance and growth. Just as the Buddhist clergy, together with the state, undertook the Tripitika project as a means of helping the nation survive foreign attacks that threatened to decimate Korean civilization itself, Buddhism throughout its history has had to adapt and struggle to survive.

The first such crisis began in the late Goryeo era, when its long predominance in Korea's political realm appears to have resulted in decay and corruption, which rendered the Buddhist order a ready target for Confucian reformers. When these Confucians established the new dynastic rule of Joseon, the Buddhist clergy were stripped of their political and economic power and forced to retreat to the private devotional realm.

But this they did, perhaps taking advantage of becoming freed from political entanglements to undertake fundamental reforms and to focus on providing spiritual solace to the people. All the while, Buddhism retained its role as a protector of the nation, providing critical assistance in repelling the Japanese invasions of the late 16th century.

The most recent challenge to Korean Buddhism's viability and strength came in the early 20th century. In the face of Japanese imperialism, on the one side, and the less domineering but equally provocative influence of Christianity, on the other, Buddhist leaders had to adapt to the new notions of "religion" as something bound by certain rules, expectations, and relationships to both state and society.

Despite these and even more menacing threats, especially from fundamentalist Christians, in the latter 20th century up to the present day, Buddhism has persevered through constant adjustment, growth, and rebirth, mirroring its core teachings and outlook.

In South Korea today it is difficult to escape the enveloping "ethos" and spirit of Buddhism, especially in the arts such as literature and film. Whether they identify themselves as Buddhist or not, the creators of these cultural forms are paying homage to the undeniable centrality of Buddhism in Korea's cultural identity, a product of nearly two millennia of history. This is indeed worthy of commemoration.

Kyung Moon Hwang is associate professor in the Department of History, University of Southern California. He is the author of "A History of Korea ― An Episodic Narrative" (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010). The Korean translation was published as 황경문, "맥락으로 읽는 새로운 한국사" (21세기 북스, 2011).